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  3. Throughout history new technologies have revolutionized warfare, sometimes abruptly, sometimes only gradually: think of gunpowde

Throughout history new technologies have revolutionized warfare, sometimes abruptly, sometimes only gradually: think of gunpowde

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问题     Throughout history new technologies have revolutionized warfare, sometimes abruptly, sometimes only gradually: think of gunpowder, aircraft, radar and nuclear fission. So it has been with information technology. Computers and the internet have transformed economies and given Western armies great advantages, such as the ability to send remotely piloted aircraft across the world to gather intelligence and attack targets. 【T1】But the spread of digital technology comes at a cost: it exposes armies and societies to digital attack. Some scenarios(电影)imagine the almost instantaneous failure of the systems that keep the modem world turning. As computer networks collapse, factories and chemical plants explode, satellites spin out of control and the financial and power grids fail. Cyberspace has become the fifth domain of warfare, after land, sea, air and space.
    The cyber-attacks on Estonia in 2007 and on Georgia in 2008(the latter strangely happened to coincide with the advance of Russian troops across the Caucasus)are widely assumed to have been directed by the Kremlin(克里姆林宫), but they could be traced only to Russian cyber-criminals. Many of the computers used in the attack belonged to innocent Americans whose PCs had been hijacked. Companies suspect China of organizing mini-raids to ransack Western know-how: but it could just have easily been Western criminals, computer-hackers showing off or disillusioned former employees. 【T2】One reason why Western governments have until recently been reticent about cyber-espionage(间谍)is surely because they are dab hands at it. too.
    Cyber-weapons are being developed secretly, without discussion of how and when they might be used. 【T3】If cvberarms-control is to America’s advantage, it would be wise to shade such accords(协议)while it still has the upper hand in cyberspace. In the meantime, however, countries should agree on modest accords, or even just informal "rules of the road" that would raise the political cost of cyber-attacks. Perhaps there could be a deal to prevent the crude "denial-of-service" assaults that brought down Estonian and Georgian websites with a mass of bogus(伪造的)requests for information; NATO and the European Union could make it clear that attacks in cyberspace, as in the real world, will provoke a response: the UN or signatories of the Geneva Conventions could declare that cyber-attacks on civilian facilities are, like physical attacks with bomb and bullet, out of bounds in war; rich countries could exert economic pressure on states that do not adopt measures to fight online criminals. Countries should be encouraged to spell out their military policies in cyberspace, as America does for nuclear weapons, missile defense and space. 【T4】And there could be an international centre to monitor cyber-attacks. or an international duty to assist countries under cvber-attack. regardless of the nationality or motive of the attacker-akin to the duty of ships to help mariners(水手)in distress.
    The internet is not a "commons", but a network of networks that are mostly privately owned. A lot could also be achieved by greater co-operation between governments and the private sector. 【T5】But in the end more of the burden for ensuring that ordinary people’s computer systems are not co-opted by criminals or cyber-warriors will end up with the latter—especially the internet-service providers that run the network. They could take more responsibility for identifying infected computers and spotting attacks as they happen.
【T2】
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答案西方政府直到最近都一直对网络间谍保持沉默，其中一个原因肯定是他们自己也是内行。
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