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  3. Two Types of Social Groups 1. One of the most basic elements of human life is the way in which we form social groups and inte

Two Types of Social Groups 1. One of the most basic elements of human life is the way in which we form social groups and inte

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问题                      Two Types of Social Groups
   1. One of the most basic elements of human life is the way in which we form social groups and interact with the members of those groups. According to sociologists, no one is ever entirely separate from the social networks that surround him or her, and the groups we belong to play an enormous role in determining how we see ourselves and our world. Early American sociologist Charles H. Cooley(1864-1929) defined two principal categories of human groupings, and his ideas are still widely accepted today. He termed them primary and secondary, based on the kinds of relationships individuals in the group share with each other.
   2. In primary groups, we form what Cooley referred to as primary relationships. These are marked by strong, long-lasting emotional ties, feelings of intimacy and genuine concern for the well-being of the other person or people. Intangible items, such as love, respect, and support, are exchanged by individuals in primary groups, causing them to feel nurtured by the relationships the group affords them. Participation in the group is therefore seen as its own reward; there is no concrete, external goal that members are working towards.
   3. Due to the time and effort it takes to build such close bonds, primary groups are typically small. Some prominent examples given by Cooley include families, groups of childhood friends, and the tight-knit communities adults enter into with their neighbors or other close peers. In the view of Cooley and later sociologists, it is the primary group that is most important in the development of an individual’s personal beliefs and values, and assists that person with his or her integration into society at large.
   4. Secondary groups, in contrast, are characterized by the lack of intimate relationships among their members. These secondary relationships involve less personal interaction and weaker emotional connections, and therefore they do not have as significant an impact on the development of an individual’s worldview. In addition, since ties between individuals are not as strong, many secondary groups either exist for only a short time before dissolving, or experience frequent changes in membership.
   5. Secondary groups can be quite large. A company’s employees, a university’s student body, and even a country’s citizens are all examples of secondary groups.A The items individuals exchange are usually tangible in nature, such as the labor provided in return for wages in the case of a commercial organization.B Most notably, though, the reason that secondary groups form in the first place is to accomplish a specific task.C Employees participate in the secondary group of their company with the intention of creating a product or service, as well as to receive pay.D If the group fails to achieve its goal, it will most likely cease to exist.
   6. Cooley believed that both primary and secondary groups are universal to human societies. While modern sociologists agree with this, they have also observed that the ratio of primary to secondary groups varies according to the level of a society’s technological development. In less-developed nations, individuals spend most of their lives in a single location with prolonged exposure to a certain group of people.This enables them to develop close bonds more easily, so primary groups are commonplace. Developed countries, on the other hand, have witnessed an increase in secondary groups at the expense of primary groups. The fast pace, widespread technology and diversity of life in these societies make it harder for people to connect emotionally with each other. Instead, innovations such as Internet chat rooms and convenient transportation have expanded the number of secondary groups that people in developed societies belong to.
   7. While the effects of such a loss of primary groups is not yet fully understood, some researchers believe it explains many of the social problems faced by such societies.The role that primary groups play in social and emotional development is so important that, if traditional primary groups fail to provide individuals with an environment in which they can experience this growth, they may seek it elsewhere. The formation of street gangs, the use of illegal drugs, and other detrimental lifestyles seen in developed societies may represent failed attempts to fill the void left by the disappearance of primary groups.
The phrase at the expense of in the passage is closest in meaning to
选项 A、along with.
B、regardless of.
C、among.
D、in place of.
答案D
解析
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