首页
外语
计算机
考研
公务员
职业资格
财经
工程
司法
医学
专升本
自考
实用职业技能
登录
外语
Animal Behavior P1: Throughout much of the 20th century, European and American scientists were sharply divided over how to study
Animal Behavior P1: Throughout much of the 20th century, European and American scientists were sharply divided over how to study
admin
2018-10-18
51
问题
Animal Behavior
P1: Throughout much of the 20th century, European and American scientists were sharply divided over how to study animal behavior.
To ethologists who mainly based in Europe, the most striking fact about animal behaviors was that they are fixed and seemingly unchangeable. For example, cats have an innate need to climb and seek refuge up high. They typically feel most secure when they can view their world from a point of concealment and gain control over their environment from a single vantage point. Dogs, by contrast, are able to understand and communicate with humans. Ethologists came to believe that ultimately even the most complex animal behaviors could be broken down into a series of immutable stimulus-response reactions. They emphasized the value of comparative studies of specific behavioral patterns, such as mating across species, in order to gain insight into how those behaviors evolved. For well over half a century, their search for the innate mechanism continued.
P2: Meanwhile, to those ethologists who based mainly in North America, the study of animal behavior took a different tack. American comparative behaviorists focused on learning and conditioned responses, which later developed into comparative behaviorism. Of interest to comparative behaviorists was where a particular behavior came from—that is, its evolutionary history, how the nervous system controlled it, and the extent to which it could be modified. In 1894, C. Lloyd Morgan, a pioneer comparative behaviorist, insisted that animal behavior be explained independently without reference to emotions or motivations, since these could not be observed or measured. In Morgan’s research, animals were put in simple situations and presented with an easily described stimulus, accompanied by precise observations and vivid accounts of behavior.
P3: This extension of animal behaviorism— studies of stimulus-response—has evolved to become an important development in comparative behavior. A stimulus is an observable fact and a broad term—so broad, in fact, that it involves any phenomenon that directly influences the activity or growth of a living organism. Not all responses to stimuli are automatic, however: as we have noted, even humans are incapable of some automatic responses. Nor are environmental changes limited to the organism’s external environment. In some cases, its internal environment can act as a stimulus as well. In general, behavior can be categorized as either innate (inborn) or learned, but the distinction is often unclear. Behavior is considered innate when it is presented and completed without any experience whereby it was learned. Higher animals, in contrast to other animals, use both innate and learned behavior. Not surprisingly, comparative behaviorists worked most comfortably from the comfort of a laboratory or psychology department, while their ethologist colleagues tended to stick strictly to studying innate patterns in a natural environment, like the development of behavior throughout animals’ lives. Major disagreements between adherents of the two approaches out inevitably occur, though the distinctions were often unclear.
P4: To early ethologists, the major driving force in behavior was instinct, behaviors that are inherited and unchangeable. Moths move towards light because they inherit the mechanism to respond to light. Although dogs have more options available to them, they bark at strangers for much the same reason. The comparative behaviorists disagreed: learning and rewards are more important factors than instinct in animal behavior. Geese are not born with the ability to retrieve lost eggs when they roll out of the nest—they learn to do so. If their behavior sometimes seems silly to humans because it fails to take new conditions into account, that is because the animals’ ability to learn is limited. There were too many examples of behaviors modified by experience for comparative behaviorists to put their faith in learning and rewards.
P5: The arguments came to a peak in the 1950s and became known as "the nature vs. nurture controversy". Consider how differently an ethologist and a comparative behaviorist would interpret the begging behavior of a hatching bird. The first time a hatching bird is approached by its parents, it begs by pecking at the beaks of their parents in an attempt to stimulate them to regurgitate a meal. Obviously, said the ethologists, they inherited the ability and the tendency to beg. Not so, countered the comparative behaviorists. We also saw that a model bearing what would seem to be the most superficial resemblance to the beak of the parent birds would stimulate begging on the part of the chick. Later experiments showed that when presented with two parental birds from related species, the young initially showed no preference for either of them. Of course, these chicks will only ever be rewarded by their parents. It would appear therefore that their innate behavior is refined with time, or to put it another way—they learn. Eventually, the distinctions between the two fields narrowed.
P6: The current view is that both nature and nurture influence behavior and development.
Increasingly, people are beginning to realize that asking how much heredity or environment influence a particular trait is not the right approach. The reality is that there is not a simple way to disentangle the multitude of forces that exist. These influences include genetic factors that interact with one another, environmental factors that interact such as social experiences and overall culture, as well as how both hereditary and environmental influences intermingle. Instead, many researchers today are interested in seeing how genes modulate environmental influences and vice versa.
P4: ■ To early ethologists, the major driving force in behavior was instinct, behaviors that are inherited and unchangeable. ■ Moths move towards light because they inherit the mechanism to respond to light. Although dogs have more options available to them, they bark at strangers for much the same reason. ■ The comparative behaviorists disagreed: learning and rewards are more important factors than instinct in animal behavior. ■ Geese are not born with the ability to retrieve lost eggs when they roll out of the nest—they learn to do so. If their behavior sometimes seems silly to humans because it fails to take new conditions into account, that is because the animals’ ability to learn is limited. There were too many examples of behaviors modified by experience for comparative behaviorists to put their faith in learning and rewards.
According to paragraph 2, comparative behaviorists were interested in finding answers to all of the following questions EXCEPT
选项
A、How has animal behavior changed over time?
B、How can emotions causing a specific behavior in one animal species help explain behavior in other animal species?
C、To what degree can animal behavior be changed?
D、How does the nervous system regulate animal behavior?
答案
B
解析
【否定事实信息题】ACD都能在第3句中找到明显的对应,但B未提及,因此答案为B。
转载请注明原文地址:https://kaotiyun.com/show/jrfO777K
0
托福(TOEFL)
相关试题推荐
Wheredoesthespeakerdecidetoputitemsin?Writethecorrectletter,A,BorC,nexttoquestions7-10.Ainemergencypack
Wheredoesthespeakerdecidetoputitemsin?Writethecorrectletter,A,BorC,nexttoquestions7-10.Ainemergencypack
Writethecorrectletter,A-F,nexttoquestions21-26.AVideoResourceCentreBReadingRoomCFoodServiceCentreDPeriodic
Completethenotesbelow.WriteNOMORETHANTWOWORDSforeachanswer.TheroleofsleepinhumansandanimalsImportanceofsl
ChooseTWOletters,A-E.WhichTWOaspectsdidthenewrulesattheendofthe19thcenturyfocuson?AcooperationBcompetitio
Choosethecorrectletter,A,BorC.Americanboysdropoutofschoolatahigherratethangirlsbecause
Choosethecorrectletter,A,BorC.Americanboysdropoutofschoolatahigherratethangirlsbecause
CoursesforinternationalstudentsExampleWritinginfirsttermInsecondterm:【L1】________Throughouttheyear:【L2】_______
CoursesforinternationalstudentsExampleWritinginfirsttermInsecondterm:【L1】________Throughouttheyear:【L2】_______
TheDinee,aNativeAmerican(people)ofthesouthwesternUnitedStates,were(once)seminomadichunterswho(practiced)a(few)
随机试题
自言自语(其六)史铁生自然之神以其无限的奥秘生养了我们,又以其无限的奥秘迷惑甚至威胁我们,使我们不敢怠慢不敢轻狂,对着命运的无常既敬且畏。我们企望自然之母永远慈祥的爱
小姐这壁坐,红娘将酒来。将:
A.OARB.DVHC.OURD.SRTE.BEV立体定向放射治疗的治疗计划系统必须提供射野方向观即上述哪些功能
患者,男性,44岁。反复发作右肾绞痛1年,2年来常于进食肉类尤其是动物内脏后,出现脚趾关节红肿疼痛。泌尿系统平片检查未发现异常。对患者应进行下列哪项检查以明确诊断
某冠心病患者想接受冠脉搭桥治疗,但又担心术中出现意外,这属于
汇票上可以记载(),但这些事项不具有汇票上的效力。
一个由4个部件组成的串联系统,4个部件的故障率分别是:λ1=0.0002/h,λ2=0.0008/h,λ3=0.0004/h,λ4=0.0006/h。假设系统的故障发生服从指数分布,请回答下列问题。系统的故障率入。为()。
①不去掌握知识和技能,不去开发人力资源,教育的价值是无法凸显的②但是,仅仅掌握知识和技能,教育的目的只实现了一半不到③诚然,作为一个发展中的国家,教育以人力资源开发为主旨是理所当然的④不能因为现实的需要就不顾长远,不能忘了教育
Pentium微处理器在保护模式下中断服务程序的段基址由( )提供。
Internet实现了分布在世界各地的各类网络的互联,其最基础和核心的协议是______。
最新回复
(
0
)