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  3. In its modern form the concept of "literature" die not emerge earlier than eighteenth century and was not fully developed until

In its modern form the concept of "literature" die not emerge earlier than eighteenth century and was not fully developed until

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问题    In its modern form the concept of "literature" die not emerge earlier than eighteenth century and was not fully developed until the nineteenth century. Yet he conditions for its emergence had been developing since the Renaissance. The word itself came into English use in the fourteenth century, following French and Latin precedents; its root was Latin litter, a letter of the alphabet. Litterature, in the common early spelling, was then in effect a condition of reading: of being able to read and of having read. It was often close to the sense of modern literacy, which was not in the language until the late nineteenth century, its introduction in part made necessary b the movement of literature to a different sense. The normal adjective associated with literature was literate. Literary appeared in the sense of reading ability and experience in the seventeenth century, and did not acquire its specialized modern meaning until the eighteenth century.
   Literature as a new category was ten a specialization of the area formerly categorized as rhetoric and grammar: a specialization to reading and, in the material context of the development of printing, to the printed word and especially the book, It was eventually to become a more general category than poetry or the earlier poesy, which had been general terms for imaginative composition, but which in relation to the development of literature became predominantly specialized, from the seventeenth century, to metrical composition and especially written and printed metrical composition. But literature was never primarily the active composition-- the "making"--which poetry had described. As reading rather than writing, it was a category of different kind. The characteristic use can be seen in Bacon ".learned in all literature and erudition, divine and humane"--and as late as Johnson "he had probably more than common literature, as his son addresses him in one of his most elaborate Latin poems." Literature, that is to say, was a category of use an condition rather than of production. It was a particular specialization of what had hitherto been seen as an activity or practice, and a specialization, in the circumstances, which was inevitably made in terms of social class. In its first extended sense, beyond the bare sense of "literacy" it was a definition of "polite" or "humane" learning, and thus specified a part interacted with a persist end emphasis on "literature" as reading in he "classical" languages. But still, in his first stage, into the eighteenth century, literature was primarily a generalized social concept, expressing a certain (minority) level of educational achievement. This carded with it a potential and eventually realized alternative definition of literature as "printed books: "the objects in and through which this achievement was demonstrated.
    It is important that, within the terms of this development, literature normally included all printed books. There was not necessary specialization to "imaginative" works. Literature was still primarily reading ability and experience, and this included philosophy, history, and essays as well as poems. Were the new eighteenth century novels literature? That question was first approached, not by definition of their mode or content, but by reference to the standards of "polite" or "humane" learning. Was drama literature? This question was to exercise successive generations, not because of any substantial difficulty but because of the practical limits of he category. If literature was reading, could a mode written for spoken performance be said to be literature’, and if not, where was Shakespeare?
   At one level the definition indicated by this development has persisted .Literature lost its earliest sense of reading ability and reading experience, and became an apparently objective category, of printed works of a certain quality. The concerns of a "literary editor" a "literary supplement" would still be defined in this way. But three complicating tendencies can then be distinguished: first, a shift from "learning" to "taste" or "sensibility" as a criterion defining literary quality; second, an increasing specialization of literature to "creative" or "imaginative" works; third, a development of the concept of "tradition" within national terms, resulting in the more effective definition of "a national literature." The source of each of these tendencies can be discerned from the Renaissance, but it was in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that they came through most powerfully, until they became, in the twentieth century, in effect receive assumptions.
What challenged the definition of literature as reading in the eighteenth century?
选项 A、The emergence of novels.
B、The emergence of dramas.
C、The emergence of poems.
D、The emergence of essay.
答案B
解析 文中第三段开头提到literature的含义中已经了所有出版的书，这其中包括哲学、历史、散文以及诗歌。因此排除选项C、D。文中提到“Was drama literature?…If literature was reading，could a mode written for spoken performance be said to be literature, and if not，where was Shakespeare?”如果文学是指阅读，那么戏剧这种记录言语行为的行事是否可以被看做阅读的一种呢?由此可见，此处对literature的含义提出了挑战。
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