首页
外语
计算机
考研
公务员
职业资格
财经
工程
司法
医学
专升本
自考
实用职业技能
登录
外语
Why Depression Needs a New Definition [A]Many psychiatrists believe that a new approach to diagnosing and treating depression—li
Why Depression Needs a New Definition [A]Many psychiatrists believe that a new approach to diagnosing and treating depression—li
admin
2016-03-08
64
问题
Why Depression Needs a New Definition
[A]Many psychiatrists believe that a new approach to diagnosing and treating depression—linking individual symptoms to their underlying mechanisms—is needed for research to move forward. In his Aphorisms, Hippocrates defined melancholia(忧郁症), an early understanding of depression, as a state of "fears and losing courage, if they last a long time. " It was caused, he believed, by an excess of bile(胆汁)in the body(the word "melancholia" is ancient Greek for "black bile").
[B]Ever since then, doctors have struggled to create a more precise and accurate definition of the illness that still isn’t well understood. In the 1920s, the German psychiatrist Kurt Schneider argued that depression could be divided into two separate conditions, each requiring a different form of treatment: depression that resulted from changes in mood, which he called "inner depression" , and depression resulting from reactions to outside events, or "reactive depression". His theory was challenged in 1926, when the British psychologist Edward Mapother argued in the British Medical Journal that there was no evidence for two distinct types of depression, and that the apparent differences between depression patients were just differences in the severity of the condition.
[C]Today, Schneider’s subtypes have largely fallen out of favor, but over the years, many more definitions were offered in their place. In 1969, the American psychologist Rollo May wrote in his book Love and Will that " depression is the inability to construct a future," while the cognitive psychologist Albert Ellis argued in 1987 that depression, unlike "appropriate sadness" , stemmed from "irrational beliefs" that left sufferers ill-equipped to deal with even mild setbacks.
[D]In 1952, the American Psychiatric Association tried to standardize the definitions of mental illnesses, including depression, by creating a taxonomy(分类法)of mental illnesses. In the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, depression was listed under the broad category of "disorders without clearly defined physical cause". The DSM-III, published in 1980, was the APA’s first attempt to clarify the definitions of specific disorders by listing their symptoms: the new edition included guidelines for differentiating depression from other disorders, and outlined eight symptoms of depression, included "poor appetite or significant weight loss" and "complaints or evidence of diminished ability to think or concentrate". If an adult met four of the eight symptoms, the manual counseled, he or she would meet the criteria for clinical depression. In the DSM-V, published in 2013, depressive disorders were finally allocated their own chapter. The diagnostic criteria were mostly unchanged, with the exception of one additional symptom: " Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective report(e.g., feels sad or empty)or observation made by others(e. g. , appears tearful). "
[E]Some scientists believe that the DSM-V definition is still too vague. As the psychiatrist Daniel Goldberg noted in the journal World Psychiatry in 2011, many of the DSM symptoms are opposites, which can make it difficult for researchers working to develop a more precise understanding of the condition. "A patient who has psychomotor retardation(精神运动性阻滞), hypersomnia(嗜睡), and gaining weight is scored as having identical symptoms as another who is agitated, sleeping badly, and has weight loss," Goldberg wrote.
[F]Many recent studies have verified Goldberg’s concerns. In 2000, for example, a group of researchers at Johns Hopkins University attempted to identify subtypes of depression by studying the symptoms of nearly 2,000 patients. However, the researchers were unable to find much of a pattern connecting gender, family history, symptoms, and the degree of the condition(mild to severe). "Depression is of different kind," they concluded, adding that " the severity of an episode appears to be more informative than the pattern of symptoms. " And in 2010, researchers in Germany testing the validity of the DSM-IV definition found that the criteria captured a huge population of patients with "widely varying associations with the pattern of co-morbidity(共病), personality traits, features of the depressive episode and demographic characteristics. " The results, they argued, " challenge our understanding of major depression as a similar categorical entity. "
[G]Part of the problem, said Scott Monroe, a professor of psychology at the University of Notre Dame, is that in medical term, depression is considered a syndrome rather than a disease. While a disease is a specific condition characterized by a common underlying cause and consistent physical traits, a syndrome is a collection of signs and symptoms known to frequently appear together, but without a single known cause. In a paper published in June in the journal Current Directions in Psychological Science, Monroe called for scientists to begin defining depression with more precision. "It is in this vague and imprecise realm that problems can arise," he wrote, " and vague insights based on imperfect similarities and differences eventually may prove to be clear oversights. "
[H]Part of the reason that scientists are still working in the "vague and imprecise realm" , as Monroe put it, is because they still don’t have a clear answer for what causes depression. In the 1960s, the dominant hypothesis was that it stemmed from a chemical imbalance in the brain, specifically from lower levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin(血清素). As a result, drug companies poured resources into developing "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors"(SSRIs), drugs that increased the amount of serotonin in the brain. SSRIs are still the most commonly prescribed type of antidepressant—despite the fact that research has shown that lower levels of serotonin do not necessarily cause depression for all individuals. And in 2010, a review of three decades’ worth of studies on antidepressants found that while SSRIs can be helpful for severely depressed people, their effectiveness "may be minimal or nonexistent" in those with mild or moderate depression.
[I]Bruce Cuthbert, the director of adult translational(平动)research and treatment development at the National Institute of Mental Health(NIMH), thinks that part of the problem is that researchers have largely focused their attention on finding a one-size-fits-all treatment that doesn’t exist. " When you do a clinical trial, you’re getting a bunch of people who are ’ depressed’ , but they’re actually very different," he said. "It’s like comparing apples, pears, and oranges. You’re not going to see a significant effect. You’re not going to be able to say, ’ This treatment works for fruits. ’ " Trying to create a singular treatment for depression, Cuthbert said, is like trying to create one for cancer: too unspecific to actually be helpful. "Our current diagnostic system is running out of steam for research. " " While DSM has been described as a ’ Bible’ for the field, it is, at best, a dictionary, creating a set of labels and defining each," the NIMH director Tom Insel wrote in 2013.
[J]In 2010, Insel invited Cuthbert, who was then working as a psychology professor at the University of Minnesota, to help the NIMH develop a new framework for defining mental illness. The result, unveiled in 2013, was the Research Domain Criteria(RDoC), a system created to flip the way researchers think about mental disorders. Unlike the DSM, RDoC isn’t organized by disorder: instead, it’s organized around specific symptoms, like fear, anhedonia(the inability to feel pleasure), and willingness or unwillingness to work. The system also lists the genes, neural circuits, physical response, and self-reported behavior associated with each symptom.
[K]The theory behind this RDoC system is that treating a specific symptom will produce better results than treating a broad category of illness. Many depression patients exhibit anhedonia, for example, but many others don’t. But if researchers took a group of patients who all displayed anhedonia, regardless of their diagnosis(it’s also a common symptom of schizophrenia)and tested treatments for that very specific symptom, they would get better results for treating anhedonia.
[L]The current definition of depression, Cuthbert explains, has largely stemmed from scientists observing patients and then developing lists of symptoms based on what they saw. " The belief was that if you described the disorder well enough, you would be able to define it," he said. But it’s becoming increasingly clear, he said, that by relying on describing the disorder, scientists are only skimming the surface in terms of understanding it. Cuthbert hopes that the RDoC system will challenge researchers to look at the mechanics of each symptom more closely, and in the process, come up with more well-informed ideas around how to diagnose mental illness. " We’re starting over with how we think about mental disorders," Cuthbert said. " Our current diagnostic system is running out of steam for research. " " Our current concept of depression is left over from times when we didn’t really understand it very much," he added. " We know so much more about it now—physically, genetically, neurochemically—and we should be using that. "
Far from being the psychiatrists’ authoritative masterpiece, DSM is considered as a lexicon at best.
选项
答案
I
解析
转载请注明原文地址:https://kaotiyun.com/show/BEL7777K
0
大学英语六级
相关试题推荐
Children’sideasabouttherainforestsandtheimplicationforcoursedesignA)Adultsandchildrenarefrequentlyconfrontedwi
ThereareseveralhypothesesabouttheoriginsofthefirstNeolithicsettlersinIreland,butmostofthesecontainproblems.F
A、Becausehewasenergetic.B、Becausehewashard-working.C、Becausehewroteanastonishingnumberofbooks.D、Becausehethoug
A、Onasmallfarmnearariver.B、InabigshopofSeattle.C、OnthecampusofSeattlePacificUniversity.D、InthelibraryofS
A、Heisafriendofthewoman.B、Heisthewoman’sex-husband.C、Heisalovelydog.D、Heisatenant.C细节题。从Iwilltakeitif
A、Assignment.B、Entertainment.C、Summervocation.D、Careerplans.A主旨题。两位说话者一直围绕男士的oralpresentation讨论,这属于他们的学业任务。因此,正确答案为A。
A、Heshouldseehiseyedoctoratonce.B、Heshouldrelaxforawhile.C、Heshouldwrapuphisbooksquickly.D、Itshouldn’ttak
LGDisplay,theworld’ssecond-biggestflat-paneldisplaymaker,isbettingbigonlarge-scaleOLEDtelevisionpanels,brushing
A、Hebroughtfoodwithhimwhenhegotonthetrain.B、Heboughtfoodfromthelocalpeopleonthetrain.C、Heboughtfoodsold
A、Psychology.B、Worldhistory.C、Modernlanguages.D、Geography.A培训包括急救、乘客心理学、航班程序以及就餐服务等,只有选项A属于这些内容当中的一个。即使没有记住所有提到的培训内容,也可以通过
随机试题
在商业银行进行汽车消费贷款的方式有_______。
符合着装整洁文明生产的是()。
下列疾病中,最可能于凌晨反复出现咳嗽和气短症状的是
预防术后肺不张最主要的措施是
新生儿期发生惊厥应考虑()。
某铁路局2018年完成的总运量为500亿换算吨公里,运输总支出为60亿元,其中固定支出占70%。2019年该局改善了运输组织方式,使得换算周转量比去年增加20%,固定支出无变化。采用支出率法计算和分析铁路运输成本时,需要确定计算支出率的运营指标体系。
进行各种管理的先行条件和基础是()。
与第二次世界大战之前相比,当代发达资本义国家的社会阶层、阶级结构发生了许多新的变化,主要表现在()。
男性,23岁,右大腿下端持续性隐痛1个月余。查体:右大腿下端内侧肿胀,压痛。X线摄片见右股骨下端偏内侧有一骨破坏区,呈肥皂泡样膨胀性生长;病灶局限,类圆形,骨皮质变薄。其最佳治疗措施是
为了反抗国民党反动派的屠杀政策,唤醒广大中国人民,中国共产党发动了多次武装起义。中国共产党独立领导革命战争、创建人民军队和武装夺取政权的开端是
最新回复
(
0
)