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  3. The United Nations Impressive as the modern network of international organization and economic agreements may seem on the s

The United Nations Impressive as the modern network of international organization and economic agreements may seem on the s

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问题                        The United Nations
    Impressive as the modern network of international organization and economic agreements may seem on the surface, it has not even come close to ridding the international community of quarrels and national conflicts. Many scholars and statesmen, in fact, have argued that peace and interdependence could best be promoted by one overriding organization rather than by many small international organizations. The supreme effort to found such an organization was the creation of the United Nations.
Key Points in the ON Charter
    Precisely how these responsibilities were conceptualized was spelled out in Chapter VII of the UN Charter, titled "Action with Respect to Threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression." Article 39 of this chapter specifies that "the Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measure shall be taken in accordance with Articles 40 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security." Subsequent articles spell out how the Security Council was expected to discharge its obligations. Article 41 deals with economic sanctions, including "complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations." Article 42 contemplates situations in which economic sanctions may be inadequate: in such cases, the Security Council "may take action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations." Other articles in Chapter VII deal with organizing the military components of full fledged collective security system, including the establishment of a Military Staff Committee.
    The machinery of international peacekeeping outlined by these articles far surpassed the comparable machinery of the League of Nations. Moreover, the UN was intended to go well beyond merely maintaining peace and security, as the establishment of its so-called specialized agencies revealed. Through these agencies, the UN plays an important role in worldwide disaster relief, resettlement of refugees, technical assistance in the areas of food and agriculture, health concerns, and many other areas. In addition, the world body actively promotes a higher world standard of living through agencies such as International Children’s Emergency Fund. Finally, financial and developmental assistance has been extended to economically troubled states through the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Glancing at a List of the UN’s specialized agencies makes it clear that the UN was committed from the outset to promoting world welfare as well as preventing world war.
    However, the UN Charter was not designed as a blueprint for a world government. Article 2, paragraph 7, of the charter makes it clear that matters "essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state" are beyond the purview of UN authority. In addition, Article 2 states unequivocally (明确地) that the United Nations "is based on the principle of sovereign (主权国家的) equality of all its members."
    Nevertheless, the declared equality of all members of the United Nations is undercut by other provisions of the charter that give greater weight within the organization to the most powerful or prominent member-states. The most obvious reason for these provisions was the need to guarantee the participation of the major states. But there was another, inure subtle reason:
    Some of the UN’s original supporters viewed the new international association not just as an organization of sovereign states, but also as the forerunner of a world government. And if the UN’s great potential were ever to be realized fully, it was evident that the larger states would have to play a greater role than the smaller, less powerful states.
Problems Underlying Comprehensive International Organization
    Despite its successes, the UN obviously has not lived up to the highest expectations of its founders. Although its articles sought to solve the procedural problems, the UN has not been free of them. And problems of procedure in international organizations invariably conceal more deep-seated difficulties. These must be faced by any comprehensive international organization.
1. The Problem of Universality
    For an international body to be successful, all nations of significant size or consequence must be persuaded to join and remain part of the organization. As a minimum condition for success, all major powers must be members. The experience of the League of Nations clearly demonstrated the problems that arise when some nations are excluded or refuse to join. The history of the United Nations also illustrates the importance of including all potential member-states -- especially those with the capacity to disrupt world peace. And yet, ensuring this universality of membership in a pluralistic world has proved to be problematic.
2. The Problem of Inequality
    Smaller nations inevitably insist on the principle of formal equality. Anything less, they contend, would be an affront to their sovereignty. By the same token, powerful nations insist that their superior strength be reflected in special procedural arrangements. Anything less, they argue, would represent a diminution of their real importance in the world. Moreover, as the relative strengths of member-states fluctuate, the original formula governing such matters needs to be revised. Some nations that formerly were considered Great Powers have to be demoted to make room for newcomers whose stars are rising. This is more than merely a "technical" problem. No international organization can remain viable unless it resolves the problem of inequality while remaining flexible enough to change with changing circum- stances.
3. The Problem of Competence
    Organizations of this kind, by their very nature, are powerless to do any more than their least cooperative members are willing to countenance (支持，赞助). As a result, international organizations tend to lack the competence to deal with a wide range of problems normally thought to fall within the realm of governmental action. The best they can do, as a rule, is deal with specific cases arising in general areas of common concern.
4. The Problem of Unity
    In the past, the most successful international organizations have been alliances based on confronting a common enemy. The Holy Alliance, inspired by the fear of a resurgent France, was a case in point. The present-day Arab League is another:
    Without the unifying effect of facing a common enemy, the Arab states undoubtedly would have engaged in far more internecine (内部冲突的) squabbling (争论) over the past forty years. When the original unity fades, however, the bonds of alliance tend to disintegrate. Disunity, or the absence of any real sense of community in the international arena is a major obstacle to all forms of international organization from the simplest to the most complex and comprehensive.
5. The Problem of Sovereignty (主权)
    Underlying all the four problems mentioned above is the problem of sovereignty -- the supreme power a state exercises within its boundaries. In the final analysis, sovereignty is indivisible: Either a nation has the last word in its own affairs or it does not. The creation of an effective world government would be possible only if individual governments could be persuaded to surrender not just part of their sovereignty but all of it a prospect that has been regarded by most nations as entirely too dangerous in a world governed by mutual fear and mistrust.
To restore international peace and security, the Security Council may take action by ______ in addition to economic sanctions.
选项
答案air，sea，or land forces
解析 此答案可从第二段第五句话“Article 42 contemplates situations in which economic sanctions may be inadequate：in such cases，the Security Council ’may take action by air，sea，or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security．．．’”中得出。
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