2. 外语
  3. How Swearing Works We all know what "bad words" are. Unlike most other language rules, we learn about swearwords and how to

How Swearing Works We all know what "bad words" are. Unlike most other language rules, we learn about swearwords and how to

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问题                     How Swearing Works
    We all know what "bad words" are. Unlike most other language rules, we learn about swearwords and how to use them without any real study or classroom instruction. Even very young children know which words are naughty, although they don’t always know exactly what those words mean.
    But swearwords aren’t quite as simple as they seem. They’re paradoxical-saying them is taboo in nearly every culture, but instead of avoiding them as with other taboos, people use them. Most associate swearing with being angry or frustrated, but people swear for a number of reasons and in a variety of situations.
    Origin and Varieties of Swearwords
    Virtually every language in every culture in the world has its own unique swearwords. Even different dialects of the same language can have different expletives. The very first languages probably included swearwords, but since writing evolved after speaking did, there’s no record of who said the first swearword or what that word was. Because of the taboos surrounding it, written language histories also include few records of the origins of swearing. Even today, many dictionaries don’t include profanity, and comparatively few studies have examined swearing.
    Most researchers agree that swearing came from early forms of word magic. Studies of modern, non-literate cultures suggest that swearwords came from the belief that spoken words have power. Some cultures, especially ones that have not developed a written language, believe that spoken words can curse or bless people or can otherwise affect the world. This leads to the idea that some words are either very good or very bad.
    In the Western, English-speaking world, people from every race, class and level of education swear. In America, 72 percent of men and 58 percent of women swear in public. The same is true for 74 percent of 18 to 34 year olds and 48 percent of people who are over age 55. Numerous language researchers report that men swear more than women, but studies that focus on women’s use of language theorize that women’s swearing is simply more context specific, So why do so many people swear? We’ll look at how swearing works in relationships and social interactions next.
    Why People Swear
    In early childhood, crying is an acceptable way to show emotion and relieve stress and anxiety. As children, (especially boys) grow up, Western society discourages them from crying, particularly in public. People still need an outlet for strong emotions, and that’s where swearing often comes in.
    A lot of people think of swearing as an instinctive response to something painful and unexpected (like hitting your head on an open cabinet door) or something frustrating and upsetting (like being stuck in traffic on the way to a job interview). This is one of the most common uses for swearing, and many researchers believe that it helps relieve stress and blow off steam, like crying does for small children.
    Beyond angry or upset words said in the heat of the moment, swearing does a lot of work in social interactions. In the past, researchers have theorized that men swear to create a masculine identity and women swear to be more like men. More recent studies, however, theorize that women swear in part because they are emulating women they admire.
    In addition, the use of particular expletives can.
    Establish a group identity
    Establish membership in a group and maintain the group’s boundaries
    Express solidarity with other people
    Express trust and intimacy (mostly when women swear in the presence of other women)
    Add humor, emphasis or "shock value"
    Attempt to camouflage a person’s fear or insecurity
    People also swear because they feel they are expected to or because swearing has become a habit. But it doesn’t mean it’s socially acceptable or even legal just because swearing plays all these roles. In the next sections, we’ll look at social and legal responses to swearing.
    Social Responses to Swearing
    All languages have swearwords, but the words that are considered expletives and the social attitudes toward them change over time. In many languages, words that used to be taboo are now commonplace and other words have taken their place as obscenities. In American English, the words currently considered to be the most vulgar and offensive have existed for hundreds of years. Their designation as obscenities, however, took place largely during and after the 1800s. In fact, the use of the word "dirty" to describe words arose in the 19th century, as did the word "profanity".
    Most languages also have a hierarchy of swearwords — some words are mildly offensive ,while others are nearly unspeakable. This hierarchy usually has more to do with a society’s attitude toward the word than what the word actually means. Some words that describe extremely vulgar acts aren’t thought of as swearwords at all. In English-speaking countries, however, many people avoid using racial slurs to swear for fear of appearing racist. Women also tend to avoid the use of expletives that relate to the female sexual anatomy out of the belief that the words contain an element of sexism.
    Western society generally views swearing as more appropriate for men than for women. Women who swear appear to violate more societal taboos than men who swear. People also tend to judge women more harshly than men for their use of obscenities. Society in general can also make moral judgments about women who swear and use non-standard English. In general, women also believe swearwords are more powerful and express more guilt about using them than men do.
    Swearing and the Law
    Just as cultures have different attitudes toward swearing and people who swear, they also have different laws governing people’s use of expletives. The Constitution of the United States guarantees that people have the right to freedom of speech in the First Amendment. The First Amendment applies specifically to Congress and the federal government, including the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Courts generally interpret that it also applies to state governments.
    So at first glance, it seems like people should be able to swear whenever they want and wherever they want because of their First Amendment rights. However, constitutional law can be tricky, and a wealth of court cases has led to a wide variety of judgments surrounding swearing. Obscenity generally falls into the category of unprotected speech — speech that is exempt from to the First Amendment rule. Other types of unprotected speech include:
    Language that incites people to violence or illegal activity
    Libel and defamation
    Threats
    False advertising
    The unprotected speech exclusion is one of the reasons why the FCC can create and enforce decency rules for broadcast television and radio.
    In addition to obscenity, court cases have examined the use of swearing in the contexts of inciting people to violence, defamation and threats. They have generally ruled that the government does not have the right to prevent blasphemy against a specific religion or to prosecute someone solely for the use of an expletive. On the other hand, they have upheld convictions of people, who used profanity to incite riots, harass people or disturb the peace.
    The First Amendment doesn’t generally apply to private organizations, and it has significantly less influence over businesses and schools. Courts frequently rule that organizations have the right to set and enforce their own standards of behavior and judgment. In addition, numerous sexual harassment cases have involved reports of swearing, and some courts have ruled that it creates a hostile environment and constitutes harassment.
Generally, the First Amendment doesn’t apply to ______.
选项
答案private organizations
解析 题干未对原文作任何改动，直接将apply to后面的宾语private organizations填入空格。
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