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  3. Though usually unintended and often unrecognized, much of behavioral science is a value-laden enterprise.【F1】Research questions

Though usually unintended and often unrecognized, much of behavioral science is a value-laden enterprise.【F1】Research questions

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问题     Though usually unintended and often unrecognized, much of behavioral science is a value-laden enterprise.【F1】Research questions that are regarded as appropriate or sensible at a particular point in time are usually situated within a matrix of cultural beliefs often widely accepted within the dominant population at large, but certainly within the scientific community more specifically. The issue of fatherhood is a case in point. Fatherhood is a cultural construction, and once formulated it has implications for the subsequent behavior of those who share the beliefs and assumptions defining that construction.
    【F2】The issue here is to understand the meanings commonly associated in the United States with the concepts of father, fatherhood, and fathering and to recognize the constraints that are implicitly placed on one’s behaviors as a result of accepting these meanings(i. e. , cultural construction)as being true. Of course, to understand fully the cultural construction of fatherhood, one must also understand its counterpoint, motherhood. And one must also understand that both constructions are influenced by cultural conceptions of masculinity and femininity.【F3】It is not our intention here, however, to disentangle the maze of meanings and behavioral implications of all of these conceptions and relationships, but merely to acknowledge that they exist. For now we want only to dwell on the cultural meaning of fatherhood in America in relation to motherhood and to explore the implications of this conception for behavioral science research on parent child relationships.
    For most Americans, the concepts father, fatherhood, and fathering appear to connote very different domains of behavior and affect from the concepts mother, motherhood, and mothering.【F4】Semantically, the cultural construction of "fathering," for example, implies nothing about father love as does the genderized equivalent of mother love that is contained semantically in the construct "mothering. " The word mothering elicits, for many, a warm, fuzzy, nurtured feeling, whereas the term fathering elicits feelings of something stronger, colder, harder, and less affectionate. The term father love is not used in everyday discourse, but mother love is. Even the phrase "father love" sounds strange to some, yet many feel comforted by "mother love". Popular literature is filled with references to both mothering and parenting when referring to caregiving. But the term fathering is almost never used in this context. When used, the term is typically found in the context of the question "Who begot whom?" Even the gender-neutral term parent is often used or interpreted as being synonymous with mother.【F5】And we have found in our own teaching that students—including advanced graduate students—often misread and even mishear the term paternal as being parental, which is then sometimes translated as maternal/mother.
【F5】
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答案而且，在教学中我们也发现学生们——包括那些高级研究生也经常将“父亲的”这个词错读或错听成“父母亲的”，他们有时还将父母亲的”翻译成“母亲(的)”。
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