首页
外语
计算机
考研
公务员
职业资格
财经
工程
司法
医学
专升本
自考
实用职业技能
登录
外语
Community courts and community justice prevailed in England at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066). The legal system was ritu
Community courts and community justice prevailed in England at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066). The legal system was ritu
admin
2011-03-10
85
问题
Community courts and community justice prevailed in England at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066). The legal system was ritualistic, dependent upon oaths at most stages of litigation, and permeated by both religious and superstitious notions. The proceedings were oral, very personal, and highly confrontative. Juries were unknown. One party publicly "appealed," or accused, the other before the community meeting at which the presence of both was obligatory. To be absent meant risking fines and outlawry. After the preliminary statements of the parties, the court rendered judgment, not on the merits of the issue nor the question of guilt or innocence, but on the manner by which it should be resolved. Judgment in other words preceded trial because it was a decision on what form the trial should take. It might be by compurgation, by ordeal, or, after the Norman Conquest, by battle. Excepting trial by battle, only one party was tried or, more accurately, was put to his "proof." Proof being regarded as an advantage, it was usually awarded to the accused party; in effect he had the privilege of proving his own case.
Trial by compurgation consisted of a sworn statement to the truth of one’s claim or denial, supported by the oaths of a certain number of fellow swearers. Presumably they, no more than the claimant, would endanger their immortal souls by the sacrilege of false swearing. Originally the oath-helpers swore from their own knowledge to the truth of the party’s claim. Later they became little more than character witnesses, swearing only to their belief that his oath was trustworthy. If he rounded up the requisite number of compurgators and the cumbrous swearing in very exact form proceeded without a mistake, he won his case. A mistake "burst" the oath, proving guilt.
Ordeals were usually reserved for more serious crimes, for persons of bad reputation, for peasants, or for those caught with stolen goods. As an invocation of immediate divine judgment, ordeals were consecrated by the Church and shrouded with solemn religious mystery. The accused underwent a physical trial in which he called upon God to witness his innocence by putting a miraculous sign upon his body. Cold water, boiling water, and hot iron were the principal ordeals, all of which the clergy administered. In the ordeal of cold water, the accused was trussed up and cast into a pool to see whether he would sink or float. On the theory that water which had been sanctified by a priest would receive an innocent person but reject the guilty, innocence was proved by sinking -- and hopefully a quick retrieval -- guilt by floating. In the other ordeals, one had to plunge his hand into a cauldron of boiling water or carry a red hot piece of iron for a certain distance, in the hope that three days later, when the bandages were removed, the priest would find a "clean" wound, one that was healing free of infection~ How deeply one plunged his arm into the water, how heavy the iron or great the distance it was carried, depended mainly on the. gravity of the charge.
The Normans brought to England still another ordeal, trial by battle, paradigm of the adversary system, which gave to the legal concept of "defense" or "defendant" a physical meaning. Trial by battle was a savage yet sacred method of proof which was also thought to involve divine intercession on behalf of the righteous. Rather than let a wrongdoer triumph, God would presumably strengthen the arms of the party who had sworn truly to the justice of his cause. Right, not might, would therefore conquer. Trial by battle was originally available for the settlement of all disputes but eventually was restricted to cases of serious crime.
Whether one proved his case by compurgation, ordeal, or battle, the method was accusatory in character. There was always a definite and known accuser, some private person who brought formal suit and openly confronted his antagonist. There was never any secrecy in the proceedings, which were the same for criminal as for civil litigation. The judges, who had no role whatever in the making of the verdict, decided only which party should be put to proof and what its form should be; thereafter the judges merely enforced an observance of the rules. The oaths that saturated the proceedings called upon God to witness to the truth of the respective claims of the parties, or the justice of their cause, or the reliability of their word. No one gave testimonial evidence nor was anyone questioned to test his veracity.
According to the passage, how did trial by battle differ from trial by compurgation and ordeal in England?
选项
A、It had a definite, known accuser.
B、It was only used after the Norman Conquest.
C、It had no secrecy in the proceedings.
D、It required judges to question witnesses.
答案
B
解析
此题为细节题。本题正解在第一段“It might be by compurgation, by ordeal, or, after the Norman Conquest, by battle.”,这话说明了英格兰战判是在诺曼征服之后的事情。由此可见答案为B。
转载请注明原文地址:https://kaotiyun.com/show/xTYO777K
0
专业英语八级
相关试题推荐
我认为,生活要求人不断地自我调整以适应现实。人愈能及时地进行调整,他的个人世界便愈有意义。调整绝非易事。我曾感到茫然害怕。但我很幸运。父母和老师在我身上发现了某种东西——可以称之为活下去的潜力吧——而我自己却没有发现。他们激励我誓与失明拼搏到底。我必烦学会
In1066,Englandwasinvadedby______.
Themusicindustry,hurtbyadeclineinCDsalesandthecontinuedfreeswappingoffilesontheInternet,tookthedrasticact
Atpresentsomepeopleclaimthatweshouldnotbelievejournalistsbecausewhattheysayintheirreportmightnotbetrue.Do
StatisticⅠ.Thedefendantisguiltyornot?Expert:1)ADNAsample【1】______defendant’s.
A、theysufferfromamnesia.B、theyarenotorganized.C、theyhavetoomanythings.D、theyareofteninahurry.B
Mentalhealthprofessionalmaybesurprisedtodiscoverhowmuchishappeningonlinetodayinthehealthcarefield.Workingclos
Canada’sEducationSystemTheCanadiangovernmentprovides【1】publiceducationforallstudentsfromKindergartentoGrade12.
A、theysufferfromamnesia.B、theyarenotorganized.C、theyhavetoomanythings.D、theyareofteninahurry.B
Acarnivalofcapitalism,BlackFridayisthedayaftertheThanksgiving,whenretailersacrossthecountrydangledeepdiscount
随机试题
比较分析国共持久战方针。(南京师范大学2013年历史学综合真题)
关于α-葡萄糖苷酶抑制剂,以下说法不正确的是
观察休克病情变化最简便有效的指标是
血分证和营分证的区别,主要在于血分证伴有的症状是
【背景资料】F市电网新能源技术研究院工程位于郊区,该工程分为三个标段,其中Ⅱ标段的施工任务由Q工程有限公司承担。本标段工程为一栋办公楼,总建筑面积2.13万平方米,土方开挖与支护工作已经在前期完成,施工方从人工清槽、基础垫层开始接手施工。该工程于201
网络计划检查的主要内容包括()。
试述学前儿童自我意识发展的阶段。
关于公文的行文规则,下列说法错误的是()。
五四运动是中国近代史上的一个划时代的事件,这个运动有其新的时代条件和社会历史条件,具体地说()
A、Aflatwithtwobedrooms.B、Anunfurnishedapartment.C、Awell-decoratedapartment.D、Afurnishedbedroominasharedflat.D
最新回复
(
0
)